Reducing the Research-Practice Gap in Domestic Violence

The under-utilization of research by domestic violence practitioners and the lack of attention by researchers to the experiences and wisdom of practitioners have been identified by numerous scholars. This “research-practice gap” has the potential to hinder progress in both research and practice. In the area of practice, approaches shown to be ineffective may continue to be used, and demonstrated effective approaches may fail to be implemented. In the area of research, failure to consider practical implications of studies can lead to research that is out of line with the actual needs of clients and service providers. For these reasons, the domestic violence research-practice gap represents a significant challenge for both researchers and practitioners to address.

CED faculty member Christine Murray and her colleagues have conducted a series of studies to understand and address various facets of the gap between research and practice in domestic violence prevention and intervention. The first study involved a statewide survey of domestic violence service providers to examine their needs and perceptions related to research (Murray & Welch, 2010). The second study involved the development of a scale to measure domestic violence researchers’ perceptions of the links between research and practice (Murray & Smith, 2009). The third study involved a Delphi study of representatives from state domestic violence coalitions to identify possible solutions to bridging the gap between research and practice (Murray, Smith, & Avent, 2010).

What are some of the major lessons learned through these studies?

1. Three barriers to service providers’ access to research findings are costs, time required to read and interpret research articles, and highly specialized technical language that is difficult to comprehend without extensive training in research methods

2. To maximize the accessibility of research-based information for service providers, research summaries should be presented in brief, highly readable formats, and the practical implications should be emphasized.

3. Domestic violence researchers and practitioners generally are interested in working together. However, practitioners and researchers may have had negative experiences with members of the "other" group, and so greater efforts are needed to bring them together to foster dialogue.

4. Research-based guidelines for practice with clients impacted by domestic violence should not be rigidly prescriptive. Research findings cannot provide all of the answers, and information should be presented in a way that leaves room for the informed clinical judgment of practitioners.

5. Researchers may need to learn more about practical demands faced by service providers. Likewise, service providers may benefit from additional training in understanding and applying research.

References

Murray, C. E., & Smith, P. H. (2009). Perceptions of research and practice among domestic violence researchers. Journal of Aggression, Conflict, and Peace Research, 1, 4-21.

Murray, C. E., Smith, P. H., & Avent, J. (2010). Solutions to the research-practice gap in domestic violence: A modified Delphi study with domestic violence coalition leaders. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 19, 424-449.

Murray, C. E., & Welch, M. (2010). Preliminary construction of a service provider-informed domestic violence research agenda. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. First published on-line on February 2, 2010 as doi:10.1177/0886260509354883.

I Get By with a Little Help from My Friends: Peer Supervision for School Counselors

by Lucy Lewis, Ed.S, MS, NCC

School counselors face unique challenges related to the provision of individual and group counseling within the school setting. School counselors are charged with the diverse tasks of helping students navigate routine developmental challenges, facilitating responses to crisis situations when they occur, and generating solutions to meet the needs of a diverse group of learners. Unlike counselors working in community mental health settings, school counselors are often the only individual in the building providing counseling services. With the absence of professional colleagues available within the same setting, principals and superintendents with no background in school counseling often serve as supervisors (Page, Pietrzak, & Sutton, 2001).

Given that peers in school settings possess similar experiences with student issues and familiarity with the responsibilities incurred by school counselors, peer supervision may provide a forum for school counselors to provide social support along with skill enhancement (Agnew, Vaught, Getz, & Fortune, 2000; Crutchfield & Borders, 1997; Thomas, 2005). Peer supervision is defined as “a structured, supportive process in which counselor colleagues (or trainees) in pairs or in groups, use their professional knowledge and relationship expertise to monitor practice and effectiveness on a regular basis for the purpose of improving specific counseling, conceptualization, and theoretical skills” (Wilkerson, 2006, p. 62).

Selection of Peer Supervisors

Autonomy and flexibility exists in determining the size of the supervision group, frequency of meetings, and communication modalities; thus, peer supervision can be adapted to the specific needs of the dyad or group and places the impetus for supervision on the school counselors. School counselors engaged in peer supervision report receiving support and skill enhancement and view peer supervision as an asset to their professional development (Agnew et al., 2000; Benshoff & Paisley, 1996; Butler & Constantine, 2006; Crutchfield & Borers, 1997; Page et al., 2001). Few specific recommendations exist for the selection of peer supervisors, allowing the counselor autonomy in selecting characteristics of the peer supervisor that best fit individual needs. Considerations that may be helpful include years of experience counseling, theoretical orientation, or grade levels served.

Connecting with Potential Peer Supervisors

School counselors could utilize the networks provided by alumni counselor education programs to connect with other school counselor graduates (Thomas, 2005). With the increased use of online social networking capabilities, such as LinkedIn or Facebook, school counselors are not limited by geographical location in the selection of peer supervisors. Technologies such as Skype or FaceTime make it possible for school counselors to provide peer supervision online instead of face-to-face.

Focus of Peer Supervision

School counselors report that structured sessions including the use of tape review and case presentation are beneficial. Tape review allows the supervisees to focus on providing specific feedback on skills and interventions used in the session. Secure services such as YouSendIt or Digital Dropbox make the sending of tape recordings and confidential case notes among peer supervisors easier and more efficient. Ideas for structuring the sessions include:

v Dividing the supervision between discussing relevant research articles on effective interventions and sharing the content of sessions through case presentation (Benshoff & Paisley, 1996; Thomas , 2005)

v Giving equal emphasis to providing support and enhancing skill development through case presentations (Crutchfield & Borders, 1997)

v Providing a structured format that allows for goal setting, evaluation of progress towards goals, and an opportunity to provide feedback to one another on the peer supervision process (Wilkerson, 2006)

Peer supervision may provide school counselors with a necessary roadmap to successfully navigate the challenges faced in the school counseling profession. Resourcefulness is a hallmark of the school counseling profession and school counselors can draw upon rich experiences in the field to provide one another with needed supervision experiences. The following recommended readings provide school counselors interested in peer supervision with additional information on peer supervision techniques and models.

Recommended Readings

Agnew, T., Vaught, C. C., Getz, H. G., & Fortune, J. (2000). Peer group clinical supervision

program fosters confidence and professionalism. Professional School Counseling, 4,

6-12.

Benshoff, J. M., & Paisley, P. O. (1996). The structured peer consultation model for school

counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 314-318.

Butler, S. K., & Constantine, M. G. (2006). Web-based peer supervision, collective self-esteem

and case conceptualization ability in school counselor trainees. Professional School

Counseling, 10, 146-152.

Crutchfield, L. B., & Borders, L. D. (1997). Impact of two clinical peer supervision models on

practicing school counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 219-230.

Page, B. J., Pietrzak, D. R., & Sutton, J. M., Jr. (2001). National survey of school counselor

supervision. Counselor Education & Supervision, 41, 142-150.

Thomas, S. R. (2005). The school counselor alumni peer consultation group. Counselor

Education & Supervision, 45, 16-29.

Wilkerson, K. (2006). Peer supervision for the professional development of school counselors:

Toward an understanding of terms and findings. Counselor Education & Supervision, 46,

59-67.

Counselor Cognitions: General and Domain-Specific Complexity

Researchers: Laura E. Welfare, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and L. DiAnne Borders, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Source (Journal name, date of publication):

Counselor Education & Supervision—March 2010—Volume 49

What was the purpose of this research?

The authors explored general and domain-specific cognitive complexity of counselors as it relates to their counseling efficacy.

If applicable, who were the participants, and what were they asked to do?

Counselors-in-training and post master’s-degree counselors from CACREP-accredited programs in Illinois, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia completed a demographic questionnaire, the Counselor Cognitions Questionnaire (CCQ), and the Washington University Sentence Completion Test, a measure of Loevinger’s theory of ego development.

Major findings or points:

Domain-specific measures of cognitive complexity were found to be more informative than general measures of complexity. Counseling experience, supervisory experience, counselor education experience, and highest counseling degree completed were identified as significant predictors of counselor cognitive complexity.

Major caveats:

The majority of participants were master’s-level students or doctoral students rather than post-master’s-degree counselors. Response rates cannot be calculated due to convenience sampling, and only a small number of participants had supervisory or teaching experience, which limited regression confidence.

What does this research mean for counseling practice, settings, and/or training?

It seems as though counseling experience can contribute to increased levels of cognitive complexity, which is most effectively investigated through domain-specific measures. Supervisors could utilize the CCQ in order to identify areas of cognitive need and teachers could focus on mastery of domain-specific concepts. Teachers and supervisors with domain-specific cognitive complexity could have a substantive impact on the cognitive growth of their students and supervisees.

Prospective First-Generation College Students: A Social-Cognitive Perspective

Researchers: Melinda M. Gibbons, University of Tennessee - Knoxville, and L. DiAnne Borders, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Source (Journal name, date of publication):

The Career Development Quarterly—March 2010—Volume 58

What was the purpose of this research?

The authors identified differences in self-efficacy and outcome expectations between prospective first-generation college students (PFGCS) and their non-PFGCS peers.

If applicable, who were the participants, and what were they asked to do?

In a single southeastern state, 272 seventh graders from four middle schools completed the College-Going Self-Efficacy Scale, the Perception to Educational Barriers Scale, the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale, and the College-Going Outcome Expectations Scale. Participants also provided demographic data and their parents completed a short survey.

Major findings or points:

The authors found that PFGCSs were more likely to be Hispanic/Latino, much less likely to be in a higher level math course, and experienced lower college-going self-efficacy than their non-PFGCS peers. PFGCSs identified more barriers to college-going expectations, less parental support, and lower positive outcome expectations than their non-PFGCS peers. The authors suggested that social-cognitive career theory should be modified to account for the effect of PFCGS’s perceived barriers and supports.

Major caveats:

This study was conducted in just one U.S. state and the response rate was relatively low, which limits generalizability. Also, the study relied upon student self-report data, which might not have been completely accurate or truthful.

What does this research mean for counseling practice, settings, and/or training?

In general, PFGCSs experience higher education differently from their non-PFGCS peers and the finding can be used to better assist these students. When working with this population, counselors should pay close attention to students’ perceived barriers and supports in addition to their sense of self-efficacy. In order to improve PFGCS’ intentions, interests, and goals, counselors should work to increase their positive outcome expectations and take care to challenge negative outcome expectations.

A Measure of College-Going Self-Efficacy for Middle School Students

Researchers: Melinda M. Gibbons, The University of Tennessee- Knoxville, and L. DiAnne Borders, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Source (Journal name, date of publication):

Professional School Counseling—April 2010—Volume 13

What was the purpose of this research?

The authors developed and tested psychometrics of the College-Going Self-Efficacy Scale (CGSES), designed to measure middle-school students’ college-going beliefs.

If applicable, who were the participants, and what were they asked to do?

Data was collected in three phases. First, 22 Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades completed a short demographic form, four surveys related to college-going beliefs, including the CGSES, and readability surveys for each survey. Second, a sample of 272 seventh-grade students from four middle schools returned consent forms and parent surveys and completed the CGSES. Third, 18 seventh-graders took the CGSES and then re-took the survey three weeks later.

Major findings or points:

The validity and reliability of the CGSES was found to be adequate and participants reported that the measure was clearly-written and an appropriate length.

Major caveats:

Although this study was conducted on a diverse group of students, additional studies would further support use of the CGSES. One question on the instrument had a complex sentence structure and was removed sue to low correlation with the other items.

What does this research mean for counseling practice, settings, and/or training?

The CGSES can be used as a needs assessment for early identification of students who have lower expectations of their college-going abilities, which is a negative indicator of college success. Analysis of individual response items allows counselors to identify specific areas of concern related to college-going self-efficacy and can be used as an individual planning tool. Counselors could work to improve students’ overall self-efficacy or challenge low scores on individual items.

Supervision in Career Counseling: Implications for Practice

by Melissa Wheeler

In practice, career counselors must balance addressing a client’s presenting concern with personal issues and considerations that may influence career choice. Due to the changing nature of the world of work, career counselors must stay abreast of workplace trends, unemployment numbers, and emerging career fields. Practicing career counselors must also continue to learn about emerging career theories and techniques that will influence their work with clients. How do practicing counselors receive this type of support when they may be far removed from educational settings?

Expressed Supervision Needs of Career Counselors

Ongoing supervision can be a tool for professional development and lifelong learning for career counselors in the field. Researchers have found that career counselors see the benefits of supervision, but they do not feel that they get enough supervision time (McMahon, 2005;Reid, 2010). Career counselors report wanting to receive the following from supervision (McMahon, 2005):

· Confirmation about their case conceptualizations

· Feedback on counseling techniques

· Affirmation of their counseling skills

· Suggestions for techniques to use with clients

· Additional perspectives on client conceptualizations and treatment plans

· Clarity regarding a difficult client’s presenting issues

· Support regarding issues that could lead to burnout

Special Considerations for Supervisors

Finding an appropriate supervisor can be difficult in professional settings. For career counselors in rural settings, supervisors may be in cities too far away to drive in regularly for face-to-face supervision sessions. In career counseling settings, supervisors may well be the superiors also in charge of performing performance evaluations. Furthermore, many counselors find it difficult to find a supervisor who has had training in supervision, much less training in supervision of career counselors. To ensure counselors and supervisors receive the most from supervision, supervisors of career counselors should keep the following in mind:

· Issues of power and possible dual relationships should be addressed at the beginning of the supervisory relationship so that counselors can be made to feel more comfortable discussing difficult cases with supervisors (Reid, 2010).

· Supervision time should be set aside as soon as possible and follow a set schedule. Supervision times must be protected, even when the work week becomes hectic (Reid, 2010).

· Expectations should be set in advance that both supervisor and counselor will prepare for the supervision session (Reid, 2010).

· Supervisors should be sure counselors not only are addressing a client’s presenting issues for career counseling, but also personal circumstances that may be affecting career decisions (Prieto & Betsworth, 1999).

· Supervisors should be attuned to a counselor’s beliefs surrounding career assessments and possible overreliance on assessment results for client conceptualizations (Prieto & Betsworth, 1999).

· Supervisors of career counselors should also receive supervision to enhance their skills (Reid, 2010).

· For supervisors who may not have expertise in career counseling, additional professional development opportunities should be sought (Reid, 2010).

For Further Reading:

McMahon, M. (2005) Clinical supervision in school counseling and career counseling: Is it time to develop a new story? Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 15, 105-116.

Prieto, L. R., & Betsworth, D. G. (1999). Supervision of career counseling: Current knowledge and new directions. The Clinical Supervisor, 18, 173-189.

Reid, H. L. (2010). Supervision to enhance educational and vocational guidance practice: A review. International Journal of Educational and Vocational Guidance, 10, 191-205. doi: 10.1007/s10775-010-9184-x

Ending the Cycle of Trauma: Reducing Vicarious Trauma through Trauma-Sensitive Supervision

Laura K. Jones

Clinicians often report feeling underprepared to work with trauma survivors. Well over half of the clients being seen at community mental health clinics report having experienced at least one traumatic incident during their lifetime, however, so trauma work is nearly inevitable. Supervision affords a unique opportunity to help prepare and support counselors working with traumatized clients. The supervisory relationship as well as the structure and content of supervision can be used as tools to prepare and ensure the wellbeing of both the client and the counselor.

Hearing stories of abuse, neglect, violence, and loss can be exceedingly difficult for counselors, especially counselors who themselves have a history of personal trauma (Baird & Kracen, 2006). In fact, many counselors who work with survivors can experience symptoms analogous to the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) faced by their clients, with nearly 20 percent of counselors developing clinically diagnosable PTSD as a result (Meldrum, King, & Spooner, 2002, as cited by Sommer, 2008). The potential for such vicarious trauma (VT) is one of the predominant considerations in tailoring supervision for trauma counselors. Supervisors can reduce the potential for VT by providing a collaborative, strengths-based supervisory relationship that integrates ongoing discussions about VT and provides time and space for supervisees to discuss personal feelings and reactions to their work. The use of stories and metaphors has also been suggested as a possible means of facilitating discussions of vicarious reactions and helping supervisees make meaning of their feelings and experiences (Sommer & Cox, 2006).

Trauma-sensitive supervisors should likewise continually monitor supervisees for signs of VT and promote self-care both in and out of the supervisory context. Use of guided imagery, progressive relaxation, and breath work can be used during supervision for supervisees who are expressing considerable stress (Sommer, 2008). Furthermore, given the predisposition for counselors with a personal history of trauma to develop VT, there is considerable debate as to whether supervisors should or ethically can inquire about the trauma history of supervisees (West, 2010). Supervisors are cautioned to weigh strongly the advantages and disadvantages of such an inquiry, taking into consideration the particular circumstances of the individual supervisee.

A second overriding concern in trauma-sensitive supervision is the specialized knowledge needed to effectively assist trauma clients (Etherington, 2000; Sommer, 2008; West, 2010). Information related to trauma assessment, trauma-induced changes in physiology and arousal, dissociation, treatment models, recovered memories, and countertransference are integral to efficacious and beneficent work with traumatized clients. The most prevalent misstep untrained trauma counselors make is pushing a survivor to work with traumatic memories before the client is emotionally and physiologically ready. As such, one of the roles of a trauma-sensitive supervisor is to assess for gaps in the supervisee’s knowledge within these six core areas and provide avenues for training in deficient areas (Etherington, 2000). An assessment of supervisees’ knowledge of trauma theory should occur prior to contracting for supervision so requisite training can be integrated into the supervisory agreement (West, 2010). Assigning regular readings and case presentations covering areas needing further development can facilitate continuing education. In order for supervisors to adequately assess and train trauma counselors, however, supervisors themselves also need to be literate in trauma theory and practice.

Organizational factors also influence the wellbeing of both the trauma counselor and client and thus should be addressed within the supervisory context (Sommer, 2008). Dual relationships whereby the supervisor is also a boss, inadequate time for supervision, supervision not being valued, and caseloads too heavily based in trauma clients can increase the potential for VT and negatively impact the client and counselor. Given the American Counseling Associations Code of Ethics (2005), counselors are obligated to take action when agency policies and practices are damaging to clients or influence the effectiveness of counselors. Therefore, discussions of organizational impediments should occur early in supervision and efforts should be made to mitigate the difficulties.

Ongoing supervision is integral to the wellbeing of trauma counselors and beneficent care of their clients and should be tailored to the particular pedagogical and emotional needs of this population. Balancing traditional supervisory goals with the core components of trauma-sensitive supervision and the individual supervisee’s needs and developmental level can be difficult, yet additional support systems outside of the supervisory relationship can help manage the more restorative, self-care needs of trauma supervisees. Supervisors can assist supervisees in finding and building such networks and in doing so better address the multifaceted demands of trauma-sensitive supervision.

For further reading:

American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA Code of Ethics. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Baird, K., & Kracen, A. C. (2006). Vicarious traumatization and secondary traumatic stress: A research synthesis. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 19, 181-188. doi: 10.1080/09515070600811899

Etherington, K. (2000). Supervising counsellors who work with survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 13, 377-389.

Sommer, C. A. (2008). Vicarious traumatization, trauma-sensitive supervision, and counselor preparation. Counselor Education and Supervision, 48, 61-71.

Sommer, C. A., & Cox, J. A. (2006). Sexual violence counselors’ reflections on supervision: Using stories to mitigate vicarious traumatization. Journal of Poetry Therapy, 19(1), 3-16. doi: 10.1080/08893670600565587

West, A. (2010). Supervising counsellors and psychotherapists who work with trauma: A Delphi study. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 38, 409-430. doi: 10.1080/03069885.2010.503696