Parallel Process and Supervision

(Note: Doctoral students in CED 781a Counseling Supervision during Fall 2010 completed abbreviated literature reviews on a topic of individual interest. They wrote both a research summary and a summary for practitioners. Here, we present the summaries for practitioners. Please let us know if you have questions or suggestions for future summaries. L. DiAnne Borders)

By Amanda Giordano

Parallel process is a phenomenon that occurs within the supervisory relationship that impacts the supervisor, supervisee, and client. Below please find information related to the basics of parallel process, as well as further reading on this topic.

What: Parallel process is a construct that emerged from the psychoanalytic orientation. It occurs when supervisees unconsciously present to their supervisors in the same fashion that their clients presented to them. It is the unconscious “acting out” in supervision an issue in the supervisee’s relationship with his/her client. For example, a supervisee may be counseling a client who continuously challenges her or his assertions and attempts to undermine the therapeutic efforts. Similarly, the supervisee may begin to challenge the supervisor in subsequent supervision sessions and counter efforts to engage in supervisory work. In this way, the supervisee is unconsciously acting out the dynamics of the counseling relationship in supervision and “asking” the supervisor how to handle these challenges in working with the client.

Who: Parallel process has several participants. The supervisor, supervisee, and the supervisee’s client are all involved. First, the supervisee and client have an issue, reach an impasse, or experience a difficult dynamic in the therapeutic relationship. The supervisee may then act in supervision in the same way the client acted in the counseling session. Therefore, the supervisor becomes actively involved as he or she interacts with the supervisee presenting as the client. Each member of the triad (supervisor, supervisee, client) is affected by parallel process.

Why: The most commonly cited motivation for parallel process is to elicit help from the supervisor. The supervisee is “showing” the supervisor what he/she is experiencing in the counseling session by “acting out” the issue in supervision. The supervisee is seeking a demonstration from the supervisor about how to navigate the situation.

When: The most common signs that parallel process is occurring are atypical supervisee behaviors, changes in the supervisory relationship, or an impasse in counseling. The phenomenon may occur whenever the supervisee feels the need to elicit help from the supervisor.

Where: Researchers have suggested that parallel process can begin in either the counseling session or the supervision session. If it begins in the counseling session, the supervisee will present like the client in supervision. If it begins in the supervision session, the supervisee will present (act like) like the supervisor in counseling.

Implications for supervision

· It is important for supervisors to be aware of parallel process and notice if supervisees are demonstrating atypical behaviors or if there is a sudden change in the dynamics of the supervisory relationship.

· Since parallel process is often an unconscious presentation of client behaviors, it is important that supervisors consult other sources rather than rely solely on a supervisee’s self-report. By watching video recordings of counseling sessions or listening to audio recordings, the supervisor can better detect if parallel process is occurring.

· It is important to note that parallel process is neither good nor bad; instead, it is another form of information. Parallel process allows the supervisor to experience what the supervisee is experiencing in counseling and therefore develop empathy. In addition, by working through parallel process, the supervisee can learn how to navigate this impasse effectively and provide better service to his/her client.

· When parallel process occurs, supervisors can intervene in two ways: 1) by identifying it and bringing it to the supervisee’s awareness, or 2) by navigating through the situation and thus supplying the information that the supervisee is seeking. The developmental level of the supervisee and supervision environment must be considered when deciding how to manage parallel process. It has been suggested in that beginning counselors lack the insight and self-awareness to benefit from the supervisor directly labeling parallel process when it occurs. Only when a supervisee has advanced in the development of self awareness should parallel process be identified directly in supervision.

Future reading on parallel process

(* most recommended for supervision practitioners):

*Alpher, V. S. (1991). Interdependence and parallel process: A case study of structural analysis of social behavior in supervision and short term dynamic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 28, 218-231.

Deering, C. G. (1994). Parallel process in the supervision of child psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 48, 102-110.

*Grey, A., & Fiscalini, J. (1987). Parallel process as transference-countertransference interaction. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 4, 131-144.

*Martin, J. S., Goodyear, R. K., & Newton, F. B. (1987). Clinical supervision: An intensive case study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 18, 225-235.

Power and Influence in Supervision

(Note: Doctoral students in CED 781a Counseling Supervision during Fall 2010 completed abbreviated literature reviews on a topic of individual interest. They wrote both a research summary and a summary for practitioners. Here, we present the summaries for practitioners. Please let us know if you have questions or suggestions for future summaries. L. DiAnne Borders)

By Cheryl L. Fulton

Overview

Social power is defined as an individual’s degree of personal influence. It is well recognized that power and influence exist in supervision and, therefore, it is an important topic for both researchers and practitioners. Social Influence Theory applied to supervision suggests that supervisees seek help because they believe the supervisor has resources needed to help them with client cases, often for difficulties supervisees perceive as beyond their control. Research supports that supervisees will accept the supervisors’ help (influence) if they perceive him/her as having three broad characteristics: expertness (credibility, training, knowledge, reputation), trustworthiness (openness, sincerity, supervisee’s best interest at heart), and attractiveness (similar and compatible). The supervisor uses this influence to affect supervisees’ attitudes and behaviors that cause them to be “stuck” with clients. The supervisor/supervisee relationship is similar to the counselor/client relationship, with the exception that the supervisory relationship is evaluative, which adds greater complexity related to power.

Researchers purport that there are five power bases used in influence. These are expert (good reputation, use of reflective statements, responsive non-verbal behavior, and well thought out and presented viewpoints that are discrepant with the supervisee's), referent (having similar attitudes and values and responsiveness), informational (familiarity with numerous helpful information sources), legitimate (a sanctioned authority position), and ecological (awareness of needed changes in supervisee’s environment, situation, or professional behavior).

There are several influence theories; however, three often seen in the counseling literature include: Dissonance Theory, Social Influence, and The Elaboration Likelihood Model. The respective methods of attitude/behavior change employed within these theories is dissonance (i.e., challenging attitudes); persuasion tactics (e.g., metaphors, noting negative consequences, pointing out benefits/rewards, and modeling); or messaging (i.e., communicate in an empathic, understanding manner). Although most studies support that supervisees value the supervisory experience and relationship, it has been a challenge to determine whether supervision positively affects client outcomes.

Practitioner Information and Tips:

Recognize that power and influence exist in supervisory relationships and therefore need the same care and attention you would give any relationship issue in any therapeutic relationship.

Supervisors will be able to influence the supervisee to accept attempts to change attitudes/behaviors best if the supervisee views the supervisor as expert, trustworthy, attractive.

When the supervisor challenges a supervisee’s perception and causes dissonance, recognize that the supervisee will attempt to resolve this in a number of ways (e.g., discredit, reject, minimize, revise, or accept). Responses other than “accept” are natural responses and need the same combination of empathy, support, and challenge that you would use in counseling.

Demonstrating professional attitudes and behaviors, continuing your own development as a counselor, building rapport, maintaining the supervisee’s welfare as paramount, attending to supervisee needs, and exhibiting warmth, empathy, respect, openness, sincerity, congruence, and expertise will enable influence and a positive supervisory experience.

Supervisory success also depends on sensitivity to other potential influence issues such as age, gender, and cultural factors. Some groups as well as some individuals may be more vulnerable to unproductive power dynamics. Being aware, genuine, and willing to seek consultation will help ensure success in dealing with these issues.

Although the supervisory relationship parallels the counseling relationship, supervision requires unique training, education, and experience to be successful.

For Further Reading

(*most recommended for supervision practitioners)

Benson, K. P., & Holloway, E. L. (2005). Achieving influence: A grounded theory of how clinical supervisors evaluate trainees. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2, 117-140.

*Claiborn, C. D., Etringer, B. D., & Hillerbrand, E. T. (1995). Influence processes in supervision. Counselor Education and Supervision, 34, 43-53.

*Dodenhoff, J. T. (1981). Interpersonal attraction and direct-indirect supervisor influence as predictors of counselor trainee effectiveness. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 47-52.

Dorn, F. J. (1985). The social influence model in clinical supervision. The Clinical Supervisor, 3, 77-84.

Granello, D. H., (2003). Influence strategies in the supervisory dyad: An investigation into the effects of gender and age. Counselor Education and Supervision, 42, 189-202.

*Heppner, P. P., & Handley, P. G. (1981). A study of the interpersonal influence process in supervision. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 437-444.

Hernandez, P., & McDowell, T. (2010). Intersectionality, power, and relational safety in context: Key concepts in clinical supervision. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 4, 29–35.

Holloway, E. L., Freund, R. D., Gardner, S. L., Nelson, M. L., & Walker, B. R. (1989). Relation of power and involvement to theoretical orientation in supervision: An analysis of discourse. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 88-102.

*Houser, R., Feldman, M., Williams, K., & Fierstien, J. (1998). Persuasion and social influence tactics used by mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 20, 238-249.

Stoltenberg, C. D. (1988). A test of the elaboration likelihood model for therapy. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12, 69-80.

Latino Students in New Arrival States: Factors and Services to Prevent Youth from Dropping Out

Researchers: Andrew Behnke, North Carolina State University,

Laura Gonzalez, UNC Greensboro, & Ron Cox, Oklahoma State University

Source (Journal name, date of publication): Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Aug 2010

What was the purpose of this research?

Latino youth are more likely than any other ethnic group to drop out of high school in the United States. Though some research has helped us understand the factors leading to dropout, very few studies have assessed Latino student’s opinions of services and factors that would help them stay in school.

If applicable, who were the participants, and what were they asked to do?

This study presents the results of an in-depth survey of 501 Latino students in North Carolina public schools.

Major findings or points:

Findings suggest that Latino youth drop out because of the difficulty of their school work (particularly if they are still acquiring English), personal problems (e.g., pregnancy or problems at home), the need to work to support their family economically, and peer pressure.

Major caveats:

The students surveyed were attending a leadership conference, so they represent a motivated subset of Latino students in North Carolina, but they were reflecting on their peers as well as their own concerns.

What does this research mean for counseling practice, settings, and/or training?

Students suggest improved academic and personal support in the form of tutoring, mentoring, after-school programs; improved English as a second language classes; and more Spanish-speaking staff/teachers.  Students pointed in particular to the importance of a caring attitude from school personnel (including counselors), which meant actively listening to their concerns or reaching out in a proactive manner.  The concerns reflected under reasons for drop out have many implications for counselors, both personal and academic.  As schools in North Carolina experience continued growth in the numbers of Latino students, administrators, teachers, and counselors who were previously unfamiliar with the culture will need to find ways to build bridges to these families.  Community and state-wide resources such as El Pueblo, the Center for New North Carolinians, and the NC Society of Hispanic Professionals have many resources to offer.  The value of personal relationships in Latino/Hispanic traditions cannot be overstated.

By: Laura Gonzalez

CED Students Create Sexuality Counseling Guidebook: Volume V (Special Theme: Sexuality Counseling Across the Lifespan)

Students in the Fall 2010 semester of the Sexuality Counseling course have written the fifth volume of the Sexuality Counseling Guidebook. The special theme for this volume was "Sexuality Counseling Across the Lifespan." The guidebook includes research-based information to assist counselors in working with clients about sexuality issues across the following stages of life: childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and older adulthood.

The Guidebook can be accessed here:

https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0Bx3L5tDfyhpRYzkxNDlhYzItMGVkYi00MzE2LWJiYTUtNmU1Yjg1YTcyNThh&hl=en

The students enrolled in this class were Whitney Akers, Abby Illig, Hannah Myung, Nicole Tate, and Emily Teague

Research Summary: The Coping Window: A contextual understanding of the methods women use to cope with battering

Researchers:
Paige Hall Smith (UNCG Center for Women’s Health and Wellness), Christine E. Murray (UNCG Department of Counseling and Educational Development, Ann L. Coker (University of Kentucky)

Source:
Violence and Victims, February 2010

Background

What does it mean to “cope” with being a victim of battering? Can any coping strategy victims use be considered adaptive if it makes it more likely for them to stay in the abusive relationship?

This qualitative study involved interviewing women in battered women’s shelters in order to understand how these women cope with the battering-related stressors they face.

Who were the participants, and what were they asked to do?

Ten first-time residents of three North Carolina battered women’s shelters were interviewed to learn about the coping strategies they used in response to abuse. The researchers used qualitative data analysis procedures to identify themes in participants’ responses.

Major findings:

The 19 identified coping strategies were categorized based on whether they focused on managing emotions or solving problems and whether they engaged intrapersonal or interpersonal resources. An example of a coping strategy from each category is as follows:

• Emotion-focused/Intrapersonal: Keeping hope
• Emotion-focused/Interpersonal: Family support
• Problem-focused/Intrapersonal: Active planning
• Problem-focused/Interpersonal: Formal help-seeking

The researchers developed a conceptual framework that involved the image of a window, in which these categories were surrounded by a frame of the context. Some contextual influences included the perceived threat of harm, the perception that there are alternatives to the abusive relationship, and beliefs the women hold about relationship commitment.

Major caveats:

As a qualitative study with a small sample of mostly African American participants drawn from one geographic region, the findings may not be applicable to other populations. In addition, because all participants were residents of battered women’s shelters, their responses may differ from those of battering victims who do not seek shelter services.

What does this research mean for counseling practice?

Counselors should assess for a variety of coping strategies when working with clients who have been victims of battering.

The relative value of coping strategies used in response to battering must be considered in light of numerous contextual factors, particularly related to victims’ safety.

According to the authors, “Coping strategies can serve both a protective and a risk-engendering function for these women, and often the same strategy may serve both functions depending on whether a short- or long-term view is taken” (p. 27). As such, counselors can work with their clients to evaluate the extent to which the coping strategies they are using are helping them to meet their short- and long-term goals.

Welcome to the Counseling Research-Practice Blog!

Whether counseling is an art or science – or a combination of both –has has long been debated within the profession. Clearly, research does not have all the answers as to how best to work with all clients in all types of settings, and the value of strong clinical judgment cannot be understated. Nevertheless, research findings can serve as a valuable resource for counselors to inform and improve their work. For example, research findings can:

· Help counselors select the most effective approaches

· Identify relevant aspects to assess or conceptualize clients

· Provide information to improve the effectiveness of treatment strategies

· Help counselors understand the characteristics of client populations

· Contribute to advances in the counseling profession

· Identify time- and cost-effective counseling strategies

· Highlight trends in the practice of counseling or within specific client populations

However, counselors should not blindly accept researchers’ conclusions and haphazardly apply them to their work. Counselors have a professional responsibility (and an ethical obligation; for example, see Standard C.2.f in the 2005 ACA Code of Ethics) to be informed, critical consumers of counseling research. Therefore, when reading about the research discussed in the entries on this blog, counselors are encouraged to take the following cautions into consideration:

· All research studies have limitations, and these limitations must be considered when interpreting and applying study findings. In our discussions of research studies, we will highlight some of the major “caveats” or limitations that impact the degree that a study can be applied to practice.

· Remember that research can be useful for identifying population trends and general themes and patterns within groups, which may not apply to all members of that group. Counselors must bear in mind that every client is unique, and so these trends, themes, and patterns will vary in the extent to which they apply to individual clients.

· Just as clients are unique, so are the settings in which counselors work. Findings that apply in one setting may not be appropriate for the unique geographic, cultural, and organizational influences of other settings. So, counselors should consider these contextual factors in determining whether and how to implement research findings in the settings in which they work.

This blog was started as an initiative of the Research-Practice Initiative in the Department of Counseling and Educational Development (CED) at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG). The main goal of this blog is to provide descriptions of recent counseling research in ways that make practice-relevant research findings accessible to practitioners. We will cover many facets of counseling practice—including clinical supervision, counselor education, school counseling, college counseling, mental health counseling, and couple and family counseling.

This blog will highlight the work of CED researchers, including faculty members and doctoral students, as well as research done by scholars at other institutions. We will highlight research that is relevant to a variety of areas of counseling practice and translate that research into implications for counseling practice.

Finally, we offer some additional practical “tips” for how to get the most out of using this blog.

First, the information provided on this blog will only be brief synopses of the research we discuss. Therefore, we won’t provide full details on each study, such as the study’s grounding in the existing literature, the methodologies used, the findings, and the implications for clinical practice. Furthermore, the information we highlight may not be the information that others would focus on, so we encourage readers to seek out the full-text of articles that are most relevant to them.

Second, related to the first tip, we know that accessing the full-texts of journal articles may not be easy for some practicing counselors, especially if they are not affiliated with university libraries with extensive databases. Although we cannot provide full-text articles to readers, we do offer the following strategies that practitioners may be able to use to gain access to full-text research articles:

· Check with the libraries of the colleges/universities you attended to see if they have a way for alumni to gain access to their collections.

· Local public libraries can be another great resource for locating research-based information. Even if your local library does not subscribe to a particular journal, you may be able to access articles through their Interlibrary Loan programs.

· Maintain membership in professional organizations that publish peer-reviewed journals. For example, members of the American Counseling Association receive a subscription to the Journal of Counseling and Development with their membership fees.

Finally, we welcome feedback and discussion through this blog. We hope that it will stimulate respectful professional dialogue and an exchange of ideas about counseling research and its relevance to practice. Please note that discussions will be monitored, and inappropriate content will be removed. Comments may be left in the appropriate sections of this blog, and readers also may contact the members of the CED Research-Practice Initiative Steering Committee with additional feedback and suggestions. Committee members are as follows:

Christine E. Murray, Ph.D., LPC, LMFT

Keith Mobley, Ph.D., LPC, ACS

Kelly Wester, Ph.D., LPC